Douglas Hyde (1938 – 1945) | History of Ireland

Newgrange Is Built (c. 3,200 BCE) The passage tomb lit by the midwinter sunrise, c. 3200 BCE

10,500 BCE – 399

Prehistoric Ireland

Hunters, farmers and tomb builders.

From the first hunter-gatherers about 10,000 years ago, through the farmers who built Newgrange and the Bronze Age goldsmiths, to the Iron Age kingdoms and royal sites known from later legend.

The First People

Hunter-gatherers built round huts above the River Bann at Mount Sandel about 7900 BCE.

The First Farmers

Neolithic farmers in north Mayo walled kilometres of fields that now lie under the bog.

Bronze Age Gold

Irish goldsmiths made lunulae, torcs and gorgets that were traded across Atlantic Europe.

Royal Sites

At Navan Fort, Emain Macha of the sagas, a great timber hall was raised and then burned.

Timeline events

24

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6

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0

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c. 10,500 BCE Alice and Gwendoline Cave Bear Bone For most of the twentieth century the earliest known human presence in Ireland was the Mesolithic settlement at Mount Sandel, dated to around 7900 BCE. Ireland had been largely covered by ice during the last glaciation, and it was assumed that people arrived only after the Ice Age had fully ended and woodland had spread across the island.
c. 3,500 BCE Carrowmore and Carrowkeel Cemeteries Co.
c. 2,200 BCE Gold Lunulae of the Early Bronze Age Alongside copper, Ireland possessed workable sources of gold, probably from river gravels such as those in the Wicklow Mountains and the Sperrins.
148 BCE Corlea Trackway Is Built Wooden trackways were built across Irish bogs from the Neolithic onwards, allowing people and animals to cross wet ground.
c. 367 Irish Raids and Settlements in Britain As Roman authority in Britain weakened in the fourth century, the island's western coasts came under attack from raiders whom Roman writers called Scotti, a term for the Irish.

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Saint Patrick's Mission Begins (c. 432) Patrick returns to the island where he had been a slave, traditionally 432

400 – 794

Early Christian Ireland

Saints, scholars and kings of Tara.

Patrick and the missionaries converted Ireland; monasteries such as Clonmacnoise, Iona and Kildare made the island a centre of learning, while the Uí Néill and provincial dynasties competed for the kingship of Tara.

Ogham

The first Irish writing was cut as notches on the edges of standing stones.

The Monasteries

Ciarán founded Clonmacnoise on the Shannon, one of the great schools of early Europe.

Iona

Columba sailed to Iona, from where his monks carried Christianity to Scotland and Northumbria.

Metalwork

The Tara Brooch and the Ardagh Chalice mark the height of early Irish metalwork.

Timeline events

26

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37

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2

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1

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c. 400 Spread of Ogham Inscriptions Ogham is an alphabet of strokes and notches cut along a central line, usually the edge of a standing stone.
c. 480 Saint Brigid Founds Kildare Brigid is, with Patrick and Columba, one of the three patron saints of Ireland.
561 Battle of Cúl Dreimne In the mid-sixth century the kingship of Tara was held by Diarmait mac Cerbaill of the Southern Uí Néill.
664 Synod of Whitby and the Irish Church From 635 the kingdom of Northumbria had been evangelised largely by monks from Iona under Aidan, who founded the monastery of Lindisfarne.
c. 774 Rise of the Céli Dé Reform By the eighth century many Irish monasteries had become wealthy and powerful institutions, closely tied to ruling dynasties and sometimes involved in warfare against one another.

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Battle of Clontarf (1014) Brian Boru's army defeats Leinster and its Norse allies, Good Friday 1014

795 – 1168

Viking Age

Raiders, towns and high kings.

Norse raiders struck the monasteries from 795 and then founded Dublin, Waterford, Limerick and Wexford; Brian Boru broke the Uí Néill monopoly of the high kingship, and the twelfth-century reform created a diocesan church.

The Book of Kells

The monks of Iona and Kells made the most richly decorated gospel book of the age.

Viking Dublin

A Norse ship base on the Liffey grew into Ireland's first great trading town.

Round Towers

Monasteries built tall stone bell towers, still landmarks of the Irish countryside.

Church Reform

The Synod of Ráth Breasail gave Ireland a church of dioceses ruled by bishops.

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49

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22

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13

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3

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795 First Viking Raids on Ireland By the late eighth century Ireland was a land of many small kingdoms whose wealthiest institutions were its monasteries.
902 Norse Expelled From Dublin In the decades after the deaths of Amlaíb and Ímar, Dublin was weakened by internal feuds among Ímar's descendants.
1002 Brian Boru Becomes High King For centuries the high kingship of Ireland had been effectively monopolised by the Uí Néill dynasties.
1111 Synod of Ráth Breasail Before the twelfth century the Irish Church was organised largely around powerful monasteries and their federations, with bishops attached to particular churches rather than governing defined territories.
1166 Diarmait Mac Murchada Seeks Henry II Expelled from Leinster by Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair and Tigernán Ua Ruairc in 1166, Diarmait Mac Murchada sailed to Bristol, a port with long-established trading links to Dublin and Wexford.

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Trim Castle Built (c. 1176) Hugh de Lacy's great castle on the Boyne, from 1176

1169 – 1533

Norman Ireland

The lordship, the colony and the Gaelic revival.

The Anglo-Norman invasion created the Lordship of Ireland under the English Crown; colonisation peaked about 1250 and then receded before a Gaelic resurgence until royal authority shrank to the Pale around Dublin.

Strongbow

Invited by the exiled king of Leinster, the Anglo-Normans took Waterford and Dublin.

Henry II

Henry II landed at Waterford in 1171 and received the submission of Irish kings and bishops.

The Bruce Invasion

Edward Bruce of Scotland invaded in 1315 and was proclaimed king before his death at Faughart.

Kilkenny

The Statutes of Kilkenny tried to stop the colonists from becoming Irish.

Timeline events

53

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15

Wars & rebellions

16

Population, 1533

about 998,000

Population of the whole island: Linear interpolation between the 1500 figure (Estimate for c. 1500 (Wikipedia, 'Historical population of Ireland'); medieval figures are very uncertain) and the 1600 figure (Estimate for 1600 from Ó Gráda (1979) via Wikipedia, 'Historical population of Ireland').

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1169 Landing at Bannow Bay In 1166 Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster, was driven out of Ireland by a coalition led by the High King Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair and Tigernán Ua Ruairc of Bréifne, whose wife Derbforgaill Diarmait had abducted years earlier.
1185 Prince John's Irish Expedition Henry II intended his son John to govern Ireland in person and in 1185 knighted him and sent him across with a substantial army.
1261 Battle of Callann The south-west, the old kingdom of Desmond, was contested throughout the thirteenth century between the Mac Carthaig kings and Anglo-Norman barons, above all the Geraldine John FitzThomas FitzGerald, who had acquired large estates in Kerry and west Cork and was building castles to dominate the region.
1394 Richard II's First Expedition By the 1390s the colony had shrunk alarmingly, and the King of Leinster, Art Mac Murchada Caomhánach (Art MacMurrough Kavanagh), and other Irish lords exacted "black rents" from the settlers in return for protection.
1513 Garret Óg Becomes Earl of Kildare Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare, remained Lord Deputy under the young Henry VIII. In 1513 he campaigned against the Ó Cearbhaill lords of Ely in the Irish midlands, and while watering his horse in the River Greese at Kilkea he was shot by a member of the O'More family.

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Battle of the Boyne (1690) William III defeats James II on the Boyne, 1 July 1690 (Old Style)

1534 – 1691

Tudor & Stuart Conquest

Conquest, plantation and war.

From the Kildare rebellion to the Treaty of Limerick, the Crown reconquered Ireland, created the Kingdom of Ireland, imposed the Reformation and planted Munster and Ulster, amid the wars of 1641–53 and 1689–91.

Kinsale

The defeat of O'Neill, O'Donnell and their Spanish allies at Kinsale ended Gaelic Ulster's war.

The Flight of the Earls

In 1607 the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell sailed for the Continent, never to return.

Plantation

The Plantation of Ulster settled English and Scottish Protestants on confiscated land.

Cromwell

Cromwell's army stormed Drogheda in 1649, killing the garrison and many townspeople.

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60

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11

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28

Population, 1691

about 2.6 million

Population of the whole island: Linear interpolation between the 1600 figure (Estimate for 1600 from Ó Gráda (1979) via Wikipedia, 'Historical population of Ireland') and the 1718 figure (Estimate based on hearth-money returns (Ó Gráda 1979; Dickson, Ó Gráda & Daultrey 1982)).

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1534 Silken Thomas Rebellion For half a century the FitzGerald Earls of Kildare had governed Ireland on behalf of the English Crown, dominating the Pale through marriage alliances, private armies and control of the office of Lord Deputy.
1588 Spanish Armada Wrecked off Ireland In the summer of 1588 Philip II of Spain sent the Armada, a fleet of about 130 ships, to escort an invasion army from the Netherlands to England.
1609 Plantation of Ulster The flight of the earls and O'Doherty's rebellion left the Crown with vast forfeited lands in counties Armagh, Cavan, Coleraine, Donegal, Fermanagh and Tyrone.
1652 Act for the Settlement of Ireland The English Parliament had financed the reconquest of Ireland partly through the Adventurers' Act of 1642, which promised investors repayment in confiscated Irish land, and it owed huge arrears of pay to the soldiers of the New Model Army.
1691 Flight of the Wild Geese Under the military articles of the Treaty of Limerick, Jacobite soldiers were given the choice of joining the Williamite army, returning home, or going into exile in France, where James II maintained his court at Saint-Germain-en-Laye as a guest of Louis XIV. The Williamite commander Ginkel and the Jacobite leadership competed to persuade the troops, assembled at Limerick, to follow their side.

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Legislative Independence: Grattan's Parliament (1782) The Irish Parliament wins its independence, 1782

1692 – 1800

Protestant Ascendancy

Penal Laws, Patriots and rebellion.

A Protestant landed elite ruled through the Irish Parliament while Penal Laws excluded Catholics and Dissenters; the century ended with legislative independence, the United Irishmen, the 1798 rebellion and the Act of Union.

The Penal Laws

Laws against Catholics barred them from land, arms, education and office.

Swift

Jonathan Swift attacked English policy and Irish poverty in his satires.

The United Irishmen

Wolfe Tone and his friends united Catholic, Protestant and Dissenter for reform, then revolution.

1798

The rebellion of 1798 was crushed at Vinegar Hill and elsewhere, with tens of thousands dead.

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30

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4

Wars & rebellions

9

Population, 1800

about 5.4 million

Population of the whole island: Linear interpolation between the 1791 figure (Estimate based on hearth-money returns (Dickson, Ó Gráda & Daultrey 1982)) and the 1821 figure (1821 census of Ireland (6.80 million)).

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1695 Penal Laws: Education Act After the Williamite victory and the Treaty of Limerick (1691), the Protestant landowning class that controlled the Irish Parliament feared a Jacobite revival backed by France.
1742 Premiere of Handel's Messiah Eighteenth-century Dublin was the second city of the British Isles and had a lively musical and theatrical life supported by the Ascendancy elite and its charitable societies.
1783 Bank of Ireland Founded Before the 1780s Irish banking consisted of private banks, many of which collapsed in periodic crises, damaging trade and confidence.
1796 French Expedition to Bantry Bay After the United Irishmen became a revolutionary movement, Theobald Wolfe Tone travelled via America to Paris in 1796 and persuaded the French Directory to send an army to Ireland, arguing that the Irish people would rise to support it.
1800 Act of Union Passed The 1798 rebellion convinced William Pitt that the Irish Parliament could not be trusted to govern Ireland securely, and that a legislative union, perhaps accompanied by Catholic Emancipation, would bind Ireland more firmly to Britain during the war with France.

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Public Works and Black '47 (1846) The worst year of the Great Famine, 1847

1801 – 1878

Union & Famine

Emancipation, famine and emigration.

Ireland was governed from Westminster under the Union; O'Connell won Catholic Emancipation, the Great Famine of 1845–52 killed about a million people and drove millions to emigrate, and the Fenians revived armed republicanism.

The Liberator

Daniel O'Connell's mass movement won Catholic Emancipation in 1829.

The Potato Blight

Blight destroyed the potato crop on which a third of the people depended.

Emigration

Over a million people fled the Famine, many on overcrowded "coffin ships".

The Fenians

The Irish Republican Brotherhood rose in 1867 in pursuit of an independent republic.

Timeline events

37

Rulers & leaders

21

Wars & rebellions

7

Population, 1878

about 5.2 million

Population of the whole island: Linear interpolation between the 1871 figure (1871 census of Ireland (5.41 million)) and the 1881 figure (1881 census of Ireland (5.17 million)).

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1801 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland The Acts of Union passed by the British and Irish Parliaments in 1800 provided that the two kingdoms would be united "for ever" from the first day of the new century.
1838 Irish Poor Law and Workhouses Ireland had no national system of poor relief, and observers estimated that over two million people were in distress for part of each year.
1847 Soup Kitchens Feed Three Million Since late 1846 voluntary bodies, notably the Society of Friends (Quakers) through its Central Relief Committee in Dublin, had shown that soup kitchens could feed large numbers cheaply.
1858 Irish Republican Brotherhood Founded After the failed rising of 1848, James Stephens and John O'Mahony escaped to Paris, where they were influenced by continental revolutionary societies.
1877 Obstructionism in the Commons Many younger Home Rule MPs were frustrated that Isaac Butt's courteous methods had produced no results, as the House of Commons routinely ignored Irish bills.

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Irish National Land League Founded (1879) Michael Davitt and Parnell lead the tenants' movement, 1879

1879 – 1911

Land War & Home Rule

The land for the people, and Home Rule.

The Land League and Parnell's Irish Parliamentary Party fought for tenant rights and self-government, while the Gaelic revival, the GAA and the literary renaissance reshaped Irish identity.

The Boycott

The ostracism of the land agent Charles Boycott gave the world a new word.

Home Rule

Gladstone's first Home Rule Bill was defeated in the Commons in 1886.

The GAA

The Gaelic Athletic Association revived hurling and Gaelic football.

The Abbey

Yeats and Lady Gregory opened the Abbey Theatre, a home for Irish drama.

Timeline events

22

Rulers & leaders

7

Wars & rebellions

0

Population, 1911

about 4.4 million

Population of the whole island: 1911 census of Ireland (4.39 million).

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1879 Apparition at Knock The late 1870s were years of hardship in the west of Ireland.
1882 Maamtrasna Murders The early 1880s saw a surge of agrarian violence in the west of Ireland, often committed by secret societies acting against those suspected of informing or breaking communal rules.
1893 Second Home Rule Bill The general election of 1892 returned Gladstone, now 82, to office for a fourth time, dependent on the support of the divided Irish nationalist members.
1903 Wyndham Land Act Earlier land purchase schemes from 1885 had allowed some tenants to buy their holdings with government loans, but progress was slow.
1911 Parliament Act Curbs the Lords The House of Lords' rejection of David Lloyd George's "People's Budget" in 1909 triggered a constitutional crisis.

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Easter Rising (1916) The proclamation of the Irish Republic at the GPO, Easter 1916

1912 – 1923

Revolutionary Period

Rising, independence and partition.

The Home Rule crisis, the Easter Rising, the War of Independence, the Anglo-Irish Treaty, partition and the Civil War created the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland.

The Covenant

Almost half a million unionists signed the Ulster Covenant against Home Rule.

The First Dáil

Sinn Féin's elected members met in Dublin and declared independence in January 1919.

The Treaty

The Anglo-Irish Treaty created the Irish Free State as a dominion of the Commonwealth.

Civil War

The Treaty split the republican movement, and civil war began at the Four Courts.

Timeline events

40

Rulers & leaders

8

Wars & rebellions

15

Population, 1923

about 4.3 million

Population of the whole island: Linear interpolation between the 1911 figure (1911 census of Ireland (4.39 million)) and the 1926 figure (1926 censuses: Irish Free State 2.97 million and Northern Ireland 1.26 million).

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1912 Third Home Rule Bill Introduced With the House of Lords now able only to delay legislation, John Redmond's Irish Parliamentary Party expected Home Rule at last.
1914 Home Rule Suspended and Woodenbridge When Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, the Home Rule Bill had passed the Commons for a third time and awaited royal assent, while an Amending Bill to exclude parts of Ulster was unresolved.
1919 First Dáil and Declaration of Independence Having won a large majority of Irish seats in the 1918 election, Sinn Féin implemented its policy of abstention.
1921 Burning of the Custom House The Custom House, designed by James Gandon and completed in 1791, was one of Dublin's finest Georgian buildings.
1923 End of the Civil War By the spring of 1923 the anti-Treaty IRA was exhausted and defeated in the field.

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Constitution of Ireland Adopted (1937) Bunreacht na hÉireann approved by referendum, 1 July 1937

1923 – 1967

Free State & Republic

Two states on one island.

The Free State consolidated democracy, de Valera's 1937 constitution created Éire, Ireland stayed neutral in the Second World War and became a republic in 1949, while unionists governed Northern Ireland from Stormont.

Power for the Free State

The Shannon Scheme at Ardnacrusha brought electricity to the new state.

Neutrality

Ireland stayed neutral in the Second World War, the years known as "the Emergency".

The Republic

The Republic of Ireland Act took effect on Easter Monday 1949.

Opening Up

Whitaker's programme for economic expansion ended decades of protectionism.

Timeline events

47

Rulers & leaders

12

Wars & rebellions

5

Population, 1967

about 4.4 million

Population of the whole island: Linear interpolation between the 1961 figure (1961 censuses (Republic 2.82 million, its lowest; Northern Ireland 1.43 million)) and the 1971 figure (1971 censuses (Republic 2.98 million; Northern Ireland 1.54 million)).

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1923 Free State Joins League of Nations Within months of the end of the Civil War, the government of W. T. Cosgrave was keen to demonstrate that the Irish Free State was a sovereign country and not merely a self-governing province of the British Empire.
1932 The Economic War Under the land acts of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Irish farmers had bought their holdings with money advanced by the British government, which they repaid as land annuities.
1941 Belfast Blitz As part of the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland was at war from 1939 and Belfast was a major industrial centre, building ships at Harland and Wolff and aircraft at Short Brothers.
1959 Seán Lemass Becomes Taoiseach Éamon de Valera had dominated Irish politics for more than three decades.
1967 NICRA Founded By the mid-1960s many Catholics in Northern Ireland were frustrated that Terence O'Neill's reforms had not addressed their grievances.

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Bloody Sunday (1972) British paratroopers open fire on a civil rights march in Derry, 30 January 1972

1968 – 1997

The Troubles

Conflict in the North, change in the South.

Civil rights protest in Northern Ireland turned into three decades of conflict that cost about 3,500 lives; meanwhile the Republic joined the EEC, modernised and, with Britain, built a peace process.

Civil Rights

The civil rights march in Derry on 5 October 1968 was broken up by the police.

Europe

Ireland joined the European Economic Community with Britain and Denmark in 1973.

The Hunger Strikes

Ten republican prisoners died on hunger strike in the Maze prison in 1981.

Towards Peace

The Downing Street Declaration opened the way to the ceasefires of 1994.

Timeline events

41

Rulers & leaders

13

Wars & rebellions

9

Population, 1997

about 5.4 million

Population of the whole island: Linear interpolation between the 1991 figure (1991 censuses (island total about 5.1 million)) and the 2001 figure (2001/2002 censuses (island total about 5.6 million)).

Key Events

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1968 Derry Civil Rights March By the late 1960s Catholics in Northern Ireland complained of discrimination in local government voting, public housing allocation and employment, and of gerrymandered electoral boundaries, most notoriously in Londonderry, where a nationalist majority was governed by a unionist corporation.
1972 Stormont Prorogued and Direct Rule Since 1921 Northern Ireland had been governed by its own parliament and government at Stormont, dominated throughout by the Ulster Unionist Party.
1979 Pope John Paul II Visits Ireland Ireland in 1979 was among the most devoutly Catholic countries in Europe, with weekly Mass attendance above 80 per cent.
1992 X Case The Eighth Amendment of 1983 recognised the right to life of the unborn, and thousands of Irish women travelled to Britain each year for abortions.
1997 Mary McAleese Elected President When Mary Robinson resigned the presidency in September 1997 to become UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, a five-candidate election was called.

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Good Friday Agreement (1998) The agreement signed in Belfast, 10 April 1998

1998 – present

Modern Ireland

Peace, prosperity and new questions.

The Good Friday Agreement brought peace and power-sharing; the Celtic Tiger boom, the 2008 crash and bailout, social-liberal referendums and Brexit transformed both parts of the island.

Power-Sharing

Ian Paisley and Martin McGuinness led a power-sharing Executive from 2007.

Boom and Bust

The guarantee of the banks in 2008 led to the EU–IMF bailout of 2010.

A Changing Society

Ireland became the first country to approve same-sex marriage by popular vote.

Brexit

The United Kingdom's vote to leave the EU made the Irish border a central question.

Timeline events

35

Rulers & leaders

20

Wars & rebellions

0

Population, 2024

about 7.3 million

Population of the whole island: CSO Population and Migration Estimates, April 2024 (5,380,300) and NISRA mid-2024 estimate (1,927,900).

Key Events

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1998 Good Friday Agreement Multi-party talks chaired by the former US Senator George Mitchell had been under way at Stormont since 1996, and Sinn Féin joined in September 1997 after the renewed IRA ceasefire.
2006 St Andrews Agreement Since the suspension of the Northern Ireland institutions in 2002, the Democratic Unionist Party had overtaken the Ulster Unionists and Sinn Féin had overtaken the SDLP, leaving the two parties furthest apart as the largest in each community.
2011 Michael D. Higgins Elected President Mary McAleese's second term ended in November 2011, and the election to succeed her attracted a record seven candidates.
2021 Northern Ireland Centenary Northern Ireland came into existence on 3 May 1921, when the Government of Ireland Act 1920 partitioned the island, creating a devolved parliament for six of Ulster's nine counties.
2026 Ireland's EU Council Presidency The Presidency of the Council of the European Union rotates among member states every six months, giving the holder responsibility for chairing ministerial meetings, setting priorities and brokering agreements among the member states.

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Ruler at the Time

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History at Glance

Prehistoric Ireland

The First People

The First Farmers

Bronze Age Gold

Royal Sites

Early Christian Ireland

Ogham

The Monasteries

Iona

Metalwork

Viking Age

The Book of Kells

Viking Dublin

Round Towers

Church Reform

Norman Ireland

Strongbow

Henry II

The Bruce Invasion

Kilkenny

Tudor & Stuart Conquest

Kinsale

The Flight of the Earls

Plantation

Cromwell

Protestant Ascendancy

The Penal Laws

Swift

The United Irishmen

1798

Union & Famine

The Liberator

The Potato Blight

Emigration

The Fenians

Land War & Home Rule

The Boycott

Home Rule

The GAA

The Abbey

Revolutionary Period

The Covenant

The First Dáil

The Treaty

Civil War

Free State & Republic

Power for the Free State

Neutrality

The Republic

Opening Up

The Troubles

Civil Rights

Europe

The Hunger Strikes

Towards Peace

Modern Ireland

Power-Sharing

Boom and Bust

A Changing Society

Brexit

Ireland Through Time

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Control

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